For small American cities similar to Dixon, lack of sufficient outside audits was a recurring problem, as third-party auditors at best could only give limited attention. However, the city's outside auditors, CliftonLarsonAllen and local accountant Sam Card, dismissed his concerns, as they presumed that Crundwell was honest and signed off on Crundwell's financial statements annually without concern. By the late 2000s, with the financial crisis and economic recession, as city maintenance and equipment suffered, there were some suspicions that she was stealing money, which went as high as Mayor James G. They assumed that either she inherited wealth and/or that her award-winning quarter horse breeding business was profitable in its own right. In the decade prior to Crundwell's arrest, only 65 blocks of road were repaired or replaced.įor most of Crundwell's tenure, residents trusted her despite the city's perilous economic conditions. The city was forced to lay off three of its nine street repair workers and cut the rate of maintenance. The most visible effect, however, was on street maintenance. As a result, employees went two years or more without raises and the police department couldn't get new radios. She forced city departments to make drastic service cuts in order to keep the budget within reason. Among other things, she bought several cars, a second house and a million-dollar motorhome.Ĭrundwell covered up her embezzlement by claiming the city's frequent budget shortfalls were due to the state being late in paying the city its share of tax revenue. She not only used the money to finance her Quarter Horse operation, but also to support a lifestyle well beyond her $80,000 city salary. In 1991, she stole $181,000, while in 2008 alone she managed to embezzle $5.8 million. On average, Crundwell stole $5 million per year from the city. According to federal investigators, this relatively uncomplicated scheme continued for 22 years. She would have money deposited into another account called the Capital Development Fund, create false state invoices, and then write checks from the fund payable to "Treasurer," which she would deposit into the RSCDA account. That's been our focus over these last years, and we're really happy to get to the place where Dixon is starting to be known for things that are not Rita Crundwell," Arellano said.On DecemCrundwell opened a secret bank account named RSCDA (Reserve Sewer Capital Development Account), making it appear to be a city account. Since then reforms have changed city government and ushered in more transparency. "Go find somewhere else to live that's not Dixon, you're not welcome," said Dixon resident Lori Bennett. "I paid good money for this property it's no longer hers."Īs of Thursday morning, the convicted embezzler is either on home confinement or at a residential reentry center. Hit the road," said Rick Humphrey, Crundwell's Nephew. "It's my property - has nothing to do with Rita Crundwell. Her nephew, who bought it at auction, was confrontational when we started shooting video of the property. Some in Dixon wondered if she might stay with family, perhaps on the farm she once owned. "Over the course of 10 to 20 years, there would have been new businesses coming in as you build out road infrastructure, water, sewer, so really, Dixon lost over $100 million between the public money that she stole and in the private money that would have followed that as investments," Arellano said. He believes Crundwell might have pivoted, seeking her release through the prison system rather than the judicial system.Ĭity leaders said they recovered about $40 million after legal fees, and are now in a much better place, but the long term Crundwell crime impact remains a scar.
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CAD 12,000.00 CAD 3,000.00 by Okanagan Crush Pad Winery Read more Lightly Used French Oak Barrels Conditioned and ready to use. Pictured are a 6.5 gallon bucket with lid, a 6.5 gallon bottling bucket with lid, a 10-gallon insulated mash tun with false bottom (for all-grain batches), a 7.5 gallon stainless steel pot with lid, a pump syphon, a 45-bottle capacity bottle tree, a 5-gallon keg. Really, really helpful guys in here, even put my ball lock adapters on for me and gave me an assist. CAD 100.00 by Tugwell Creek Meadery Read more Sale Delta F1 Crusher The greatest crushing unit ever manufactured. It's really hidden so GPS this chap, but great prices on keg taps. I contacted Tom via email and facebook and someone got back to me to me right away and took care of it! Thanks guys, really appreciate it. The shop had just closed when I discovered this. Our available equipment inventory changes constantly. Yesterday there was a mix up with my grain bill and I ended up leaving without part of my grain order. Beer, Coffee, Distilling, Kombucha, Soda, Spirits, CBD, Wine, Dairy, Phrama, and More Whatever your used brewery equipment needs, Used-Brewing-Equipment is here to help you succeed in the fastest, most cost-effective, least stressful way. Most homebrew equipment will last for years and can be used many times if cared. Been getting my CO2 tanks filled here for a while.Ĭustomer service is top notch. Brewing beer, wine, lager, cider or spirits, we can supply the brewing. PLAATO Keg Management System 99.00 129.00. Homebrew Kit - Beer Bottles, Kettle, Digital Thermometer, and Spoon 89.99. Staff is super helpful and the selection is great. Silver Serpent Stainless Steel Immersion Wort Chiller 74.99. On this website, under ‘Brewing info’ in the main menu, we have Videos on Distilling, Tips, Recipes and useful Information on Brewing and how to re-create your favourite tipple.Btw, keep up the great work with the store! I drive 30 min to your store (passing a few different homebrew shops on the way) because your store is truly a one-stop-shop for quality (a good grain mill crush is a big importance to me), service (I really appreciate how you measure and mill the grains for your customers), selection, and a great price (your prices can’t be beat)! ” Miles You can change low-cost alcohol into authentic copies of the most well known Rum’s, Bourbon’s, Whisky’s, Gin’s, Vodka’s, Tequila’s and of course Liqueurs! Because we also manufacture the fermentation vessels ourselves. Its a good thing that Speidel isnt fooling anyone there either. Popular Beer & Cider brands include, Morgans Beer Tins, Coopers Beer Tins, Black Rock Beer Tins & Mangrove Jacks Beer/Cider Pouches.įor the Home Spirit Maker we have everything you require including a large range of Spirit or Liqueuer Essences, Liqueuer Bases, Fermenters, Additives,Boilers, Stills, Wood Chips, Yeasts, Filters, Sugars, & Condensers In brewing beer, fermentation is just as important as the brewing itself. We have all the popular brands of Homebrew Supplies – Edwards Essences, Willards Essences, Essencia Essences, Noble Essences, Prestige Essences,Still Spirits Classic Essences, Original Essences and Top Shelf Essences. We stock Beer Concentrates including – Coopers, Mangrove Jacks and Morgans, Fermenters, Malt, Hops & Yeast, Sterilisers, Kegs & Keg Systems and Caps & Cappers. We stock everything you require for Distilling Spirits and Brewing Wine, Beer & Cider. Make beer and wine with our great selection of home brewing supplies, beer making recipes, keg supplies, all grain beer equipment, cheese making supplies. Looking for best home brewing supplies in Australia Look no further than KegLand with top-quality brewing supplies and hardware to create your perfect. We are your LOCAL brewing experts, with Home Brew recipes, Starter Kits, and all type of Home Brew equipment.
Whether you’re looking for a tree to provide shade in the summer, give local wildlife food or shelter, or just a lovely tree to add a colorful pop to your landscape, you won’t be disappointed. That’s because homeowners in the capital area are spoiled for choice when it comes to native trees that thrive in the area. The good news is you won’t have to sacrifice any part of your landscape plan to incorporate native trees. They’ll help with your landscaping workload, too, as native trees grow well in and around Raleigh and require less care and upkeep than their non-native counterparts. Native plants also help stop the “non-native plant invasion,” as the extension says. Serve as host plants for the larva of butterfly caterpillars, many of which are adapted to the foliage of a single type of plant. Provide nectar for hummingbirds and butterflies.Draw in insects that native birds eat, as well as their favorite fruits and seeds.Grow seeds, nuts, and fruits for squirrels and other mammals.Provide protective cover for local wildlife.Having a variety of different native trees compounds those benefits. Native plants do many things for your neighborhood and its wild inhabitants that exotic species don’t.Īs the North Carolina Cooperative Extension service explains, those native trees are doing much more than they appear to. “People are wanting something with a footprint that doesn’t impede on their friendly relationship with their neighbor.” Why Go Native?įirst, why should a homeowner choose native trees? In short, because they’re better. “Just think of the real estate term: location, location, location,” he says. Many native trees are starting to become popular in the Raleigh’s quickly growing residential neighborhoods thanks to their smaller, narrower stature, says Ron Banks, sales manager at Taylor’s Nursery in Raleigh. They require less work, stop the spread of invasive non-native species and provide food and shelter to the city’s wildlife. Come fall, robust maples burst with color in front yards.īut if you’re looking to add your own contribution to the city’s treescape, a native tree is the way to go. Stately oaks line historic streets, cooling them from the summer sun. In Raleigh, the City of Oaks, trees are a ubiquitous part of the landscape. Living room lanterns add class and elegance to living rooms that need a chic focal point but might be overwhelmed by a traditional chandelier. The recommended color temperature for ambient lighting in hallways and foyers is 2700-3000K, often called ‘soft white’ or ‘warm white,’ and installing your fixture on dimmer switches can personalize your look even further. LED bulbs offer incandescent equivalencies at lower wattages so if you find your lantern feels too bright or too dim for the room using the above formula, swapping in LED bulbs allows you to tweak the lighting output of the fixture to your liking. With recent innovations in LED technology, you can find low wattage LED bulbs that help you customize the look of your space. However, this formula assumes the use of incandescent bulbs. For example, a room that is 12 feet long by 10 feet wide requires a fixture that provides 180 watts (or (12x10)x1.5=180). The number you get is the total wattage needed for your fixture. A simplified formula to determine the recommended incandescent wattage needed for any given room is to multiply the length and width of the room, and then multiply the answer by 1.5. Exact formulas for determining how much light a room needs can be complicated and consider many different factors. Once you have determined the best lantern size, you should also consider the wattage and illumination offered by your chosen fixture. If you adhere to the sizing rules above, you are sure to create a look you can be proud of. Depending on the size of your hallway, one fixture may suffice, or you may consider hanging multiple hall lanterns at different points down the hallway. Ceiling lights and sconces are typical finds in this room but hanging lanterns here is a creative and stylish alternative. Interior hallways without much natural light can be a bother and lighting this space can often be overlooked. If you have a two-story foyer or entryway, hang the bottom of your entryway lantern level with the second floor for the best visual effect. If you have high ceilings, you can mount the lantern higher but it should never be hung closer than seven feet from the floor, or else you will create a safety hazard. Your lantern should be hung in the center of the room, and the bottom of the fixture should fall about seven feet above the floor. (For example, a room that is 12’x12’ needs a light that is 24” in width.) Usually one foyer lantern will suffice, but if you have a large foyer or select a small fixture, multiple lights can create a unique aesthetic. The resulting sum is the diameter or width in inches of an appropriately sized hanging fixture. First, measure the length and width of your room and add those two numbers together. To choose the right size lantern for your entryway, you can reference the same rules used to determine chandelier and pendant sizing. These lantern light fixtures are also stylish statement makers and can add a dash of wow-factor at the front door that sets the tone for the rest of your home. The foyer needs lots of ambient lighting to keep walkways safe and functional and the configuration of bulbs in foyer lantern fixtures is perfect for casting that kind of light. While hanging lantern lights can be used in most rooms of your home, they are especially suited to placement in the foyer or entryway. How to Size & Hang a Chandelier: Tips & FAQs. She authors a custom A&P I laboratory manual for SCF and sponsors a book scholarship for students enrolled in health science programs. Though her primary teaching responsibilities are currently focused on Anatomy and Physiology I and II, she has experience teaching comparative anatomy, histology, developmental biology, and nonmajor human biology. Prior to authoring this textbook, Jason produced dozens of textbook supplements and online resources for many other Anatomy and Physiology textbooks.īeth Ann Kersten is a tenured professor at the State College of Florida (SCF). His academic background is diverse and, although his primary teaching load is in the Human Anatomy and Physiology program, he has also taught classes in Pathophysiology and mentored several Honor Projects. In his capacity with LSC he has served as Faculty Senate President for two of the six LSC campuses. Jason is currently Dean of Instruction and Professor of Biology at Lone Star College-CyFair in Houston, Texas. Additionally, at that time he taught high school chemistry and physics at Detroit Charter High School. Jason began his career in Michigan, where from 2001 to 2003 he taught as an adjunct at Henry Ford Community College, Schoolcraft College, and Wayne County Community College, all in the Detroit area. Over the past 15 years, Jason has had the good fortune to be associated with a number of colleagues who have mentored him, helped increase his skills, and trusted him with the responsibility of teaching students who will be caring for others. Jason LaPres received his Master's of Health Science degree with an emphasis in Anatomy and Physiology from Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Michigan. Yet The B1M 2.77M subscribers 3.1M views 1 year ago architecture cities construction Shenzhen and Wuhan are household names, but dozens of. The tallest of them, Ping An Finance Center with height of 599 meters, is also in Shenzhen. The Massive Chinese Cities You've Never Heard Of. According to a list of top 10 skyscrapers to be completed this year reviewed by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat of the US, six will rise in China. Height: 632 meters (2,073 feet), 121 floors. China has the largest number of skyscrapers in the world, surpassing that of the top eleven largest, the United States (870+), United Arab Emirates (310+), South Korea (270+), Japan (270+), Malaysia (260+), Australia (140+), Indonesia (130+), Canada (130+), Philippines (120+) and Thailand (120+) combined. Beijing has iconic large structures preserved from the imperial era. Shanghai Tower Height: 632 meters (2,073 feet), 121 floors Built: 2014, opened 2015 Cost: 2.2 billion USD Special features: tallest in China, world's 2nd tallest building (2016) Shanghai Tower is the second tallest building in the world after the Burj Kalifa. Most of these ten buildings are in Shanghai, Shenzhen, Macau, and Hong Kong, and have been built in the last 8 years. The planned skyscraper will have 169 floors and called H700 Shenzhen Tower, according its builder's proposal.Ĭhina has several skyscrapers in the pipeline. Beijing has iconic large structures preserved from the imperial era. With 74 percent of banking institutions, 80 percent insurance companies, 40 percent securities institutions as well as 90 percent foreign banks of the city located in Caiwuwei, it’s the Wall Street of Shenzhen. It is currently the tallest building in the People's Republic of China and the third tallest in the world. If the plan goes through it means the new skyscraper over overtake 632-meter-tall Shanghai Tower to become the tallest building in China and the second-tallest in the world, according to the website of Luohu district of Shenzhen on Aug 9. The tallest skyscraper in Shanghai is the Shanghai Tower, which is 632 m (2,073 ft) tall with 128 floors. The skyscraper is part of the 'Mini Sky City' project in Changsha. Shenzhen, China's southern city neighboring Hong Kong, has announced a plan to build a skyscraper as high as 739 meters on the old site of Huanyu Tower in the newly designed Caiwuwei central financial district. Watch a timelapse video of a 57-story skyscraper being built in China in 19 days. Move aside Shanghai Tower, there's a new big boy in the town. There was no immediate information on the cause of the blaze.An undated design sketch of H700 Shenzhen Tower. Other videos from local media showed workers inside managing to evacuate the building. Videos of the blaze showed one side of the building scorched black, with debris falling to the ground. tall and is of mixed-use, including businesses, offices, and a large hotel. It said there was no disruption to cellphone service, but social media users complained of being unable to use their phones. Since 2003, China has completed the construction of 1112 skyscrapers which. Height: 527.7 meters (1,731 feet) Floors: 109 Public observatory Yes Completed: 2018 Beijing's skyline is transformed Also called China Zun, the No. No injuries or deaths have been reported, China Telecom said in a statement. MOSQUITO FIRE: California's largest wildfire of 2022, grows to 100 square miles thousands evacuated bjarke ingels group (BIG) has completed a skyscraper in china that features an undulating building envelope. The city's fire department said it sent 280 firefighters who were able to quickly extinguish the blaze on the 720-foot building. BIG's shenzhen energy mansion is a 'subtle mutation of the classic skyscraper'. Since it is so far the Chinese tallest one. The list includes buildings located in Macau but not those found in Hong Kong, which are featured in their own list. Its latest image is captured from the top of the Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai and has a 195-gigapixel resolution. This list of the tallest buildings and structures in China ranks structures in China that stand at least 250 m (820 ft) tall by height. Watch Video: Flames engulf entire skyscraper in ChinaīEIJING - A massive fire sent flames and black smoke pouring Friday from a 42-story skyscraper in central China belonging to the country's largest telecoms operator, but no casualties were immediately reported, officials said.ĭozens of floors burned in the China Telecom building in the city of Changsha, the capital of central Hunan province. With the super advanced techniques and design, this skyscraper is praised as a top great Green Building worldwide. BigPixel Studio, officially Shanghai Jingkun Technology, has been creating super high-resolution panorama images of cities worldwide since 2014. Ah, that's the primary limitation to this handy tool. A built-in adjustable margin stop allows holes to be punched in exact alignment along the edges of a part. It can accurately punch the correct size holes, and do it quicker. The Whitney punch is a small hand held lever type punch with interchangeable dies. Drill them or punch them out with a tool. This generally means that the drilled rivet hole will have to be either machine countersunk, or compression dimpled to provide the proper nest for the rivet head.īut, before we get into countersinking and dimpling procedures, a few important comments regarding the drilling of rivet holes may be useful. The additional work generated by the use of flush rivets stems from the requirement to modify the drilled rivet hole to accept the cone shaped head of the flush rivet. Still, it is well for the first time builder to be aware that extra, time consuming, preparatory steps will be required if he elects to go all the way with flush riveting.Īs in the installation of conventional protruding head rivets, flush riveting starts with the drilling of the correct size hole for the rivet selected. However, extra work for a good purpose doesn't seem to deter most builders as they are more apt to be freer with their time than with their money. While labor costs aren't ordinarily a matter of concern in the construction of a homebuilt, the extra work could be. This is understandable for the extra labor costs could outweigh, by far, the slight performance gain realized from the extensive use of flush riveting. Unfortunately, since flush riveting is an expensive process, most manufacturers of general aviation aircraft have long limited the use of flush rivets to as few components as possible. The sleek smoothness of flush riveted skins is considered to be an essential factor in obtaining the maximum performance expected of high performance aircraft. Rivet manufacturers typically list the tolerances for the weight a rivet can support on the back of the package.Flush rivets are used, primarily, on external metal surfaces where good appearance and the elimination of unnecessary aerodynamic drag are important. Standard blind rivets work well for securing metal pieces that won’t need to support a lot of weight. Having settled on using blind rivets, the next issue comes down to size, style, and material. The rivet gun pulls the mandrel through the body, expanding it to lock the material in place between the head of the body and the newly “mushroomed” end. Types of RivetsĪll blind rivets consist of a mandrel and body. The automatic tools really help when you tend to do a lot of riveting in the course of your work. Manual tools work great when you don’t have a ton of work to do. A battery-powered tool does the entire process when you pull the trigger. With a manual rivet gun, you often have to activate the handle several times to complete the work. The more expensive battery-powered tools save your hands and automatically collect spent posts after applying the rivet. Manual rivet guns and battery-powered tools accomplish the same work. These call for either a hand riveter or one of the more recent battery-powered tools. In this article, we’re more concerned with DIY applications. We also intend to avoid any applications that require pneumatic guns or heavy-duty riveting. These get their name since you can “blindly” fasten them from one side of the material without accessing (or even seeing) the other side. For the purposes of this article, we’re going to stick with blind rivets. First Thing’s First – What is a Rivet Gun?īoth rivets and rivet guns come in a variety of flavors. Overall, it's a great beginner scope for the price. Lastly, I love that it's so portable and easy to bring alone, very lightweight and folds up easy without having to disassemble anything much. The knobs and lever for adjusting are also a bit too rough if you're wanting to make small movements. A bit of a tap on setup will move the scope away from your view, there needs to be a bit of weight for stability which is compromised by the lightweight feature unfortunately. With its lightweight feature, this makes it difficult to keep the scope in place. Material wise, the whole scope setup is quite flimsy and unstable. This information could have been useful if included. It also took a while to understand that the distance of the phone and the lens matters, so as to avoid reflections or blurred outcomes. 75) Mount: AZ Altazimuth Mount Eyepiece: K25mm: 16X K10mm: 40X K5mm: 80X Finderscope: 630 Zenith Mirrors: 48Erecting BAK4 prism Tripod: stainless steel Tripod (adjustable) Barlow lens: 3XPackage Content: 1 x Telescope Optical Tube 1 x stainless steel Tripod 3 x Eyepiece ( 25mm & 10mm & 5mm ) 1 x 630. Mobile phone holder was a bit hard to align but eventually figured it out especially if the smartphone used has multiple cameras. Specification: Type: Refractor Aperture: 80mm (3. I'm excited to try this out on a more zoomed view and try to find other objects in the sky. Even with the 25mm, I could see the moon's crater clearly on the clear day. The quality and resolution were fantastic. For now, I was only able to use the 10mm and 25mm. I still have to figure out how to use the barlow effectively. For a beginner, I believe that's key rather than having to do research and figuring out themselves how to apply those information to this specific scope. There's a lot of info on the internet, but it would have been best to have it specific to this scope. But maybe it would have been better to have some basic instructions on the actual usage and tips to experience your first view of the skies. The kit came complete, took a few minutes to assemble, actually quite easy esp with the visual instructions. Not a biggie for me, but wanted to rate this fairly. There was a dent on one of the tripod legs. The power of the magnification increases with decreasing focal length.A great starter kit! Finally got to use it for the lunar eclipse and super moon last night so decided to write the review now.įirstly, there was a slight mishap during shipping or maybe it could have been a defect coming in, but can't tell.As the focal length lengthens, the magnifying power decreases.As a result, eyepieces are essential to a telescope's operation.Įyepieces come in a range of sizes, and their informal name is "Focal Length." The eyepiece focal length rule is as follows: An eyepiece's role is to gather and magnify that focused light. However, some Gskyer eyepieces are sold separately.Ī telescope's job is to gather light from the target object and concentrate it at one spot. Instead, it moves in the form of an arc and follows the axis of spin of the Earth.Ī Gskyer telescope comes with at least two eyepieces. Equatorial Mount - An equatorial mount doesn't move in a straight line like an alt-azimuth mount.Alt-Azimuth Mount - An alt-azimuth mount enables parallel-line movement or adjustment of the telescope.Equatorial mounts and alt-azimuth mounts are the two different kinds of mounts. Understanding the sort of mount your telescope has is essential since it directly affects how you use it. You need to take off the black cap to see through this lens. You might get two, three, or a mirror with your telescope, depending on the model. In order to attach the telescopic tube to the tripod and secure it with the provided screws, first remove the plastic caps from the front to the back of the tube. It is advised that you set up your telescope indoors and get some practice using it before taking it outside to conduct observations.Īfter assembling the tripod, check that the handle moves easily. You won't need to employ collimation to acquire a magnified view because the telescope generates images that are upside-down.Īny Gskyer telescope manual will surely include the assembling as its most crucial section. The optical tube should be longer than the lens's aperture. Refractor telescope - In contrast to reflecting telescopes, refractor telescopes use lenses.Reflector telescopes typically deliver an image that is reversed. The mirrors inside the optical tube reflect light. Reflector telescope - Reflector telescopes employ mirrors.A good example of a refractor telescope is the Gskyer 600x90mm. Both types of telescopes are produced by Gskyer, however refractor telescopes are much more popular. You must first ascertain if your telescope is a refractor or a reflector. pythons, cobras 36), snakes do not care for their egg (apart from selecting for nest-site 37), and usually leave the nesting site within hours post -laying 37, 38. Pawley 35 observed no effect of “daily rotation of some Natrix natrix eggs”, and Marcellini and Davis 25 reported that egg turning did not affect hatching success in Pantherophis guttatus (results for Python molurus were unclear). Snakes appear to be the least studied group in this regard. However, experimental designs and testing techniques varied greatly across studies, making any trends difficult to characterize. In other taxonomic groups, deleterious effects have been reported, for example in the desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis 31 and in most sea turtles species 32, 33, 34. No effect on egg development and hatching success were reported in the garden lizard Calotes versicolor 24, leopard geckos Eublepharis macularius 25, most freshwater turtles 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, and, to some extent, in the alligator Alligator mississippiensis 30. Thus, if the egg is turned after the embryo has attached itself, the weight of the yolk could impede normal development or tear both the vitelline and extra-embryonic membranes 18, 22, 23, leading to death or malformations 18, 21, 22, 23.Įxperimental observations about the effects of egg handling or turning in reptiles are scarce, and often anecdotic. Nevertheless, it is assumed that within a few hours after oviposition, reptile embryos rise to the top of the egg and start adhering to the inner membrane of the shell 18, 21. In the absence of specific experimental studies, whether this belief belongs to the “urban myth” category or is indeed true remains an open question. This belief most likely stems from the observation that reptilian eggs lack the avian chalazae 19, 20. in the exact same position as they were found). It is indeed common “knowledge” amongst amateur and professional reptile breeders that freshly laid eggs should be marked with a pencil to distinguish top from bottom prior to being placed in an incubator (i.e. Bird eggs benefit from turning because it facilitates embryonic development by stimulating the growth of the area vasculosa, which in turn maximizes nutrient uptake from the yolk 4.Ĭontrary to bird eggs, it is generally assumed that reptile eggs do not respond well if rolled or turned early on or after laying 18. Yet, driven by the poultry industry research and development, the role and benefits of egg rolling in birds has been extensively studied 15, 16, 17. Nevertheless, the roles played by more subtle factors such as the relative position of individual eggs within the clutch 13, 14, or the position of the embryo within the egg during incubation has attracted less attention, perhaps due to technical difficulties 4. Incubation temperature, and in relevant taxa, hygrometry, have dominated most of the research effort and proven to be paramount drivers of hatching success and hatchling phenotype 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. The physical conditions experienced during incubation and the consequence for hatching success, hatchling phenotypes and overall fitness have been studied in a wide range of taxa, from birds, reptiles, fish, amphibians, to insects 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. However, post-birth mortality was significantly higher in turned (37.5%) compared to unturned (4.5%) embryos, providing support to the common belief that eggs should not be moved from their natural position. Egg turning did not significantly influence egg development, hatching success or hatchling phenotypes. Top embryos displayed higher metabolic rates (heart rates), shorter incubation time, and produced lighter and shorter snakes than bottom embryos. Larger females laid larger clutches with higher proportion of top located embryos. Clutches contained, on average, 59% of embryos located at the top, 28% at the bottom, and 14% on a side of the egg. Here, we used 338 eggs from 32 clutches of the water snake Natrix maura to (1) thoroughly describe natural clutch arrangement, (2) experimentally assess the effects of natural embryo positioning and (3) egg turning on embryo metabolism, hatching success, and hatchling phenotype. It is a common belief that reptile eggs should not be turned after oviposition once the embryo has attached itself to the inner membrane of the shell as it might kill developing embryos. |
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